Educational Psychology

Conservation is acquired in the concrete operational stage (about 7 to 11). The sensorimotor stage is when object permanence develops; in the preoperational stage children are still misled by appearance and do not yet conserve; the formal operational stage is when children can reason with hypotheses without concrete objects.

Assimilation means taking a new experience into one's existing framework (schema). Reshaping the framework is accommodation, not assimilation. The framework itself is the schema; equilibration is the balancing of assimilation and accommodation. The level reachable with help relates to Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, not to a schema.

The zone of proximal development comes from Vygotsky. Gesell stressed maturation (readiness), Piaget proposed stages of cognitive development in which children build knowledge themselves, and Havighurst described developmental tasks for each period; none of them proposed this concept.

The school-age task is industry vs. inferiority. Basic trust vs. mistrust belongs to infancy, autonomy vs. shame and doubt to early childhood, and intimacy vs. isolation to young adulthood.

Commitment without a crisis is foreclosure. Identity achievement is commitment after a crisis, moratorium is being in the middle of the crisis and still searching, and identity diffusion is a lack of commitment.

Jensen's environmental threshold theory says each trait has a different threshold. Stern's convergence theory adds heredity and environment together, Gesell's maturation theory stresses maturation, and Watson's environmentalism stresses environment and experience; none of them is about thresholds.

Kohlberg analyzed the reasoning behind judgments on moral dilemmas and organized it into three levels (preconventional, conventional, postconventional) and six stages. Eight stages belong to Erikson. The stage depends on the reasoning, not the answer chosen, and Kohlberg saw experience such as discussion as promoting development rather than maturation alone.

Havighurst set out developmental tasks systematically. Erikson is known for eight stages of psychosocial crises, Bowlby for attachment to caregivers, and Watson for environment-centered behaviorism.

Attachment theory comes from Bowlby (Ainsworth measured attachment patterns with the Strange Situation). Gesell is known for maturation and readiness, Marcia for adolescent identity statuses, and Vygotsky for the zone of proximal development.

Once conditioning is established, the sound is the conditioned stimulus (before that it was a neutral stimulus). The food is the unconditioned stimulus and salivation to food is the unconditioned response. A reinforcer is an operant-conditioning term for a consequence that increases behavior.

Negative reinforcement means behavior increases because something unpleasant (the disliked cleaning) is removed. Praise that increases behavior is positive reinforcement. Scolding that reduces behavior is punishment. Sitting down at the bell is behavior cued by a signal (stimulus); nothing unpleasant is removed, so it is not an example of negative reinforcement.

The advance organizer is part of Ausubel's meaningful reception learning, not programmed learning. Small steps, immediate confirmation and self-pacing, together with active responding, are principles of programmed learning.

Insight learning was shown by Köhler. Thorndike is known for trial-and-error learning with cats in puzzle boxes and the law of effect, Skinner for operant conditioning, and Pavlov for classical conditioning.

Observational learning occurs just by watching another person (a model), even if the learner is not reinforced directly. Learning only when personally rewarded describes direct reinforcement. Repeated pairing describes classical conditioning, and small steps with immediate checking describe programmed learning.

Discovery learning was proposed by Bruner. Ausubel is known for meaningful reception learning (the teacher presents content), Bloom for mastery learning, and Ebbinghaus for research on memory and the forgetting curve.

Mastery learning holds that almost all learners can reach the objectives given time and suitable teaching, and uses formative assessment along the way to find difficulties and provide remedial or enrichment work. Ranking and selecting is the idea of norm-referenced evaluation. Discovering the structure alone is Bruner's discovery learning, and relying only on intrinsic motivation is not a principle of mastery learning.

That the effect depends on the combination of learner aptitude and teaching method (treatment) is Cronbach's aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI). The halo effect is a rating bias, the undermining effect is a drop in intrinsic motivation due to rewards, and the Pygmalion effect is teachers' expectations affecting achievement.

Ebbinghaus showed that forgetting is rapid right after learning and then levels off; it is neither constant nor delayed. He used nonsense syllables to remove the effect of meaning and measured savings (how much less effort relearning needed), so the description using meaningful texts is also wrong.

A drop in intrinsic motivation caused by external rewards is the undermining effect (studies by Deci and by Lepper and colleagues). The halo effect is a rating bias, the Pygmalion effect concerns teacher expectations, and learned helplessness is passivity resulting from uncontrollable experiences.

The three basic psychological needs are autonomy, competence and relatedness. Physiological, safety and self-actualization come from Maslow's hierarchy; ability, effort and luck are factors in Weiner's attribution theory; attention, retention and motivation are processes in Bandura's observational learning.

From the bottom the order is physiological, safety, belonging and love, esteem, and self-actualization. Directly above belonging and love is esteem. Safety and physiological needs are below it, and self-actualization is the top, above esteem.

Effort lies within the person (internal) and can change (unstable). Internal and stable is ability, external and stable is task difficulty, and external and unstable is luck.

Seligman and Maier's experiment led to the concept of learned helplessness. Self-efficacy is the expectation that one can succeed, achievement motivation is the motive to succeed, and observational learning is learning by watching others.

Bandura regarded one's own successful performance as the strongest source. Watching others succeed (vicarious experience), encouragement from others (verbal persuasion) and bodily and emotional states are also sources, but they are weaker than one's own successes.

The Pygmalion (teacher expectancy) effect was reported by Rosenthal and Jacobson. Seligman and Maier are known for learned helplessness, Deci and Ryan for self-determination theory, and Lewin and colleagues for research on leadership styles and group climate.

People with a strong motive to succeed tend to choose tasks with a moderate chance of success. Very easy or very hard tasks tend to be chosen by people with a strong motive to avoid failure. Tasks decided by luck give little sense of accomplishment and are not preferred by high achievers.

Directing attention to internal causes the student can change, such as study methods or effort, tends to support motivation. "Not for you" attributes failure to ability (internal, stable) and tends to lower motivation; "too hard" (external, stable) and "unlucky" (external, unstable) do not help the student see that their own actions can change the result.

Assessment used during learning to improve teaching is formative. Diagnostic assessment checks readiness before learning, and summative assessment sums up achievement at the end of a unit or term. Norm-referenced evaluation is about what to compare with (position within a group), not about when.

The notice's three viewpoints are knowledge and skills; thinking, judgment and expression; and attitude of engaging in learning proactively (主体的に学習に取り組む態度). The four viewpoints including interest, motivation and attitude were the earlier ones. "Motivation to learn and humanity" is the name of a pillar of competencies, of which the proactive attitude is the part evaluated by viewpoint. The set with initiative and collaboration is not in the notice.

Elementary school records 3, 2 or 1 from grade 3 up, and lower secondary school records 5 levels from 5 to 1. Reversing the levels or saying 10 levels is wrong. Written descriptions are used for the special subject of moral education and the period for integrated studies, not for the overall grade of each subject.

Moral education is recorded as a brief written description of the child's learning and growth in morality, as individual-referenced evaluation, in both elementary and lower secondary schools. A-B-C viewpoints and 3- or 5-level grades are used for regular subjects; moral education is not graded with numbers or by rank.

Whether a test really measures what it is meant to measure (calculation skill) is a question of validity. Reliability is whether results are stable across repeated testing and different scorers. Leniency and central tendency are rater biases (marking too generously or bunching in the middle), not problems of test design.

IQ = 10 ÷ 8 × 100 = 125. 80 results from dividing the wrong way (8 ÷ 10 × 100), 120 comes from adding ten times the 2-year difference to 100, which is not the formula, and 100 is the value when mental age equals chronological age.

50 + 10 × (74 − 62) ÷ 8 = 50 + 15 = 65. 62 is the mean and 74 is the raw score, not deviation scores. 51.5 comes from forgetting to multiply by 10 (50 + 12 ÷ 8).

Letting one prominent positive trait raise the rating of other aspects is the halo effect. Central tendency is bunching ratings in the middle, the Golem effect is low expectations lowering achievement, and the undermining effect is rewards lowering intrinsic motivation.

Moreno devised the sociometric test, which maps choices into a sociogram to show relationships in a class. The guess-who test asks children to name classmates who fit descriptions; it does not produce a sociogram. In PM theory the most effective type is PM, strong in both performance (P) and maintenance (M). In Lewin and colleagues' study, friendly atmosphere and independent activity were seen under democratic leadership, not laissez-faire.